Nanotube-and nanocrystal-based non-volatile memory

ABSTRACT

An embodiment is a transistor for non-volatile memory that combines nanocrystal and nanotube paradigm shifts. In particular an embodiment is a transistor-based non-volatile memory element that utilizes a carbon nanotube channel region and nanocrystal charge storage regions. Such a combination enables a combination of low power, low read and write voltages, high charge retention, and high bit density. An embodiment further exhibits a large memory window and a single-electron drain current.

FIELD

Embodiments of the invention relate to non-volatile semiconductor memoryand more specifically non-volatile semiconductor memory including ananocrystal floating gate and nanotube channel.

BACKGROUND

Memory manufacturers are currently researching and developing the nextgeneration of memory devices. One such development includes technologydesigned to replace current volatile and non-volatile memorytechnologies. Important elements of a successor include compactness, lowprice, low power operation, non-volatility, high density, fast read andwrite cycles, and long life.

Current memory technology is predicted to survive into 65 nanometerprocess generations. This survival is in part based on the successfulintegration of, for example, exotic storage, source and drainengineering, copper and low dielectric constant materials for theinterconnect levels, and high dielectric constant materials fortransistor gates. However, there will thereafter exist a need for newmemory materials and technology, particularly for non-volatile memory.

As is well known in the art, Flash memory utilizes a floating gate tostore charge indicative of a logical “0” or logical “1” memory state.The floating gate is located between a control gate and a substrate, andrelies on hot electron injection and Fowler-Nordheim electron tunnelingthrough a thin tunneling oxide between the floating gate and thesubstrate for charge injection. An electrical potential, usually between10 and 13 volts, can be applied to the control gate to excite electronsthrough the tunneling oxide layer into the floating gate where they arethereafter trapped. The trapped electrons provide excess potential inaddition to the potential applied at the control gate. Hence the currentthrough the transistor channel in the substrate is a function of boththe control gate voltage and the presence/absence of charge in thefloating gate. In other words, the compounded effect of the storedcharge and the control gate voltage sets the resistance in the currentchannel, controlling the current flow through it. A cell sensor(external circuitry) monitors the potential drop across the currentchannel in the substrate which is controlled by the resistance of thechannel to the current flow. If, for example, the resistance through thegate is greater than a set threshold value in Ohms, it has a logicalvalue of “1.” If the resistance drops below the threshold, the logicalvalue changes to “0.” The non-volatility of the memory depends on howsecurely the electrons are trapped in the floating gate. Among otherdefects, weak spots in the tunneling oxide (in particular as thetunneling oxide thickness decreases) may enable a filament current thatwill discharge the entire floating gate and render the device useless asa non-volatile memory element as the floating gate will be unable tostore charge for any useful duration which leads to product reliabilityconcerns.

Nanocrystals have been introduced as a paradigm to increase tunnelingoxide reliability of Flash memory by dividing a monolithic floating gateinto a set of discretely spaced floating gates. In the event of a weakspot or defect in the tunneling dielectric, this discreteness allows thedischarge of only the floating gate directly over the defect. The restof the floating gates are unaffected by the defect instead of thecatastrophic leakage of all stored charge from a monolithic floatinggate.

Another paradigm shift involves the use of carbon nanotubes inelectronic applications. In particular, single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWNTs) are nanometer scale cylindrical tubes that are rolled from asingle graphene sheet that can either be grown from a carbon source withthe help of a catalyst. Nanotubes can have various crystal orientationsand diameters which produces a variety of electronic band structures.Thus, SWNT can either metallic or semiconducting. As a semiconductor, aSWNT or multiple SWNTs can replace the semiconductor (e.g., siliconsubstrate) in a metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor(MOSFET) structure. Such devices are also called carbon nanotube fieldeffect transistors (CNFETs). However, while the promise of SWNTs inelectronics applications theoretically impressive, SWNT-based electronicmanufacturability offers significant hurdles to commercialpracticability.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: illustration of a substrate cross section of a siliconnanocrystal memory device including 1-dimensional band diagrams forwrite, store, and erase functions of the silicon nanocrystal memorydevice

FIG. 2: schematic illustration of a substrate cross section of ananotube, nanocrystal non-volatile memory of an embodiment

FIG. 3: illustration of a substrate cross section of an embodimentfollowing the formation of oxide and a catalyst

FIG. 4: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 3 followingthe growth of a nanotube adjacent to the catalyst

FIG. 5: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 4 followingthe formation of the tunneling dielectric

FIG. 6: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 5 followingthe formation of nanocrystals

FIG. 7: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 6 followingthe formation of a control or passivation oxide

FIG. 8: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 7 followingthe formation and patterning of a mask for a source and drain metalelectrode etch

FIG. 9: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 8 followinga source and drain etch

FIG. 10: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 9 followingthe formation of source and drain electrodes

FIG. 11: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 10following the formation of a back gate

FIG. 12: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 10following the formation of a top gate electrode

FIG. 13: illustration of the substrate cross section of FIG. 10following the formation of both a back gate and a gate electrode

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of a nanotube- and nanocrystal-based nonvolatile memory andmethod of manufacture thereof will be described. Reference will now bemade in detail to a description of these embodiments as illustrated inthe drawings. While the embodiments will be described in connection withthese drawings, there is no intent to limit them to drawings disclosedherein. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives,modifications, and equivalents within the spirit and scope of thedescribed embodiments as defined by the accompanying claims.

Simply stated, an embodiment is a non-volatile memory that combinesnanocrystal and carbon nanotube paradigm shifts. In particular anembodiment is a transistor-based non-volatile memory element thatutilizes a nanotube channel region and nanocrystal charge storageregions. Such a combination enables a combination of low power, low readand write voltages, high charge retention, and high bit density. Anembodiment further exhibits a large memory window and effective controlover the drain current by a single electron stored in the nanocrystals.

As noted, current Flash memory utilizes a continuous floating gate tostore charge. When there are weak spots in the tunneling oxide (oftencaused by manufacturing non-uniformity), a filament current dischargesthe floating gate and the device becomes inoperable to store adistinguishable logical “1” or logical “0” state. As noted, an approachto mitigate this problem is to break the floating gate into multiplediscrete charge storage regions so that one weak tunneling oxidelocation will not discharge the entire floating gate. On a small enoughscale, the discrete charge storage regions are nanocrystals. Thenanocrystals are often arranged in a two-dimensional format. The chargestored in a nanocrystal has a local effect on the channel current in thesubstrate. Far away from the nanocrystal, the effect of the storedcharge drops off, decreasing the effect of the charged nanocrystal onthe local resistance of the channel. Electrical current prefers a lowresistance path. Hence there may be a preferred percolation currentpattern through the two-dimensional nanocrystal array controlledsubstrate current channel region that affects the device performanceadversely.

As introduced, carbon nanotubes, and in particular single-walled carbonnanotubes have become increasingly popular for both their mechanical andelectrical properties. One approach has been to use the carbon nanotubeas the semiconductor for the channel region of the transistor. Carbonnanotubes have increased carrier mobility versus bulk silicon (i.e.higher conductivity normalized to cross sectional area) and furtherexhibit higher current density than bulk silicon. Further, carbonnanotubes are naturally small and easy to control with an electricfield. Said differently, a carbon nanotube can be compared to a highwaywith only one lane that can be easily blocked and unblock to control thetraffic thereon. This is particularly useful to improve the sensitivityof the channel region of the carbon nanotube nanocrystal memory deviceof an embodiment and resulting memory window thereof. Further the carbonnanotube, with only one conduction dimension, mitigates the percolationcurrent challenge of the two-dimensional array of the nanocrystals asdiscussed above.

FIG. 1 illustrates a substrate cross section of a silicon nanocrystalmemory device 100 including a gate 101, drain 102, source 103, siliconnanocrystals 104, tunnel oxide 105, current channel 106 in the siliconsubstrate 108 and control oxide 107. The silicon nanocrystal 104floating gate (scale increased for illustration only) is located betweenthe control oxide 107 and the tunnel oxide 105, and relies on hotelectron injection and Fowler-Nordheim electron tunneling through thethin tunnel oxide 105 to accumulate and disperse charge. An electricalpotential, usually between 10 and 13 volts, can be applied to the gate101 to excite electrons through the tunnel oxide 105 layer where theyare thereafter trapped in the silicon nanocrystal 104 floating gate. Thetrapped electrons act as an additional source of electrical potentialbetween the gate 101 and the current channel in the silicon substrate108, the extent of the source of the potential (i.e., the amount ofstored charge) to determine the logical state of the silicon nanocrystalmemory device 100. FIG. 1 also illustrates one-dimensional band diagramsfor write 110, store 111, and erase 112 functions of the siliconnanocrystal memory device 100. The silicon nanocrystals 104, however,exhibit many interface states, and are subsequently unstable and highlysensitive to back end processing steps. In other words, despitetheoretical promise, the silicon nanocrystal memory device is difficultin production with high parametric yield.

FIG. 2 is a schematic illustration of a substrate 200 cross section of acarbon nanotube nanocrystal memory of an embodiment, the details ofwhich will follow with respect to FIGS. 3 through 13 and the discussiondirected thereto. In an embodiment, substrate 200 is n+silicon. Formedon the substrate 200 is a dielectric 201, in an embodiment silicondioxide. A carbon nanotube 202 is formed on the dielectric 201 andoperates as a channel region. Metal electrodes 205 provide electricalcontacts to the carbon nanotube 202 at two separate locations.Nanocrystals 204 are formed adjacent to the carbon nanotube 202 andbetween electrodes 205. The nanocrystals 204 operate as a floating gateas they are separated from the carbon nanotube 202 by a tunnel oxide203. The structure further includes a gate 207 separated from thenanocrystals 204 by a control oxide 206.

In operation, the carbon nanotube 202 is a one-dimensional conductorspanning the electrodes 205. The conductivity of the carbon nanotube 202depends in part on the charge stored by the nanocrystals 204 functioningas an array of discrete floating gates adjacent to the carbon nanotube202. The nanocrystals 204 operating as a floating gate can be comparedto a valve that controls the flow of charge carriers through the carbonnanotube 202. Said alternatively, based on the amount of current thatthe nanocrystal 204 floating gate allows through the carbon nanotube202, external circuit elements (not illustrated) can determine if thenanotube nanocrystal floating gate memory of an embodiment is storing alogical “1” or a logical “0.” Further, as the carbon nanotube 202 isone-dimensional, the preferred percolation current of a two-dimensionalnanocrystal array on a two dimensional current channel in the siliconsubstrate as introduced above is substantially eliminated.

FIG. 3 illustrates a substrate 300 cross section following the formationof oxide 301, oxide 302 and a catalyst 303. In an embodiment, thesubstrate is silicon and oxide 301 and 302 are silicon dioxide. Thecatalyst 303 of an embodiment comprises a transition metal (e.g., iron,nickel, cobalt, yttrium, lanthanum, or a metal alloy such ascobalt-molybdenum). In an embodiment for which the catalyst 303 is iron,the catalyst 303 is formed by a chemical reaction involving a solutionof FeCl₂. The FeCl₂ solution may further include a porous supportmaterial so that, during formation, the plurality of catalysts 303 areproperly separated on the substrate 300 (assuming that there will bemany such memory elements of an embodiment fabricated on the samesubstrate). In an embodiment the porous support material is Al₂O₃. Whenthe substrate 300 including the FeCl₂ is heated (with or without theporous support material), the FeCl₂ decomposes to form catalyst 303. Inan embodiment the catalyst 303 is a metal nanoparticle. In an alternateembodiment the catalyst 303 is formed by depositing an organic material.In a further embodiment, the catalyst 303 is formed by depositing aprotein, for example a hemoglobin-like protein that contains iron oxide.Subsequent exposure to hydrogen reduces the iron oxide in the protein toform iron. In an embodiment, the catalyst 303 is a metal nanoparticlewith a diameter approximately between 1 and 10 nanometers.

FIG. 4 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 3 followingthe growth of a nanotube 400 adjacent to the catalyst 303. In anembodiment, the nanotube 400 is a carbon nanotube. In a furtherembodiment, the nanotube 400 is a single wall carbon nanotube. To growthe nanotube 400 of an embodiment, the catalyst 303 is exposed to ahydrocarbon gas. The hydrocarbon gas, in an embodiment methane, isheated until it decomposes, at which point the decomposed carbon willinteract with the catalyst 303 metal. Once the catalyst 303 is saturatedby carbon, the carbon will precipitate out of the catalyst 303, forminga substantially pure carbon precipitate based on a preferred lowerenergy carbon-carbon bond. Furthermore, the carbon forms, again based ona preferred lower energy state, a nanotube 400 as it precipitates. In anembodiment, the nanotube 400 has a diameter of approximately between 1and 4 nanometers.

In addition to the direct growth method described in FIG. 3 and FIG. 4,pre-grown and purified SWNTs can be dissolved in a liquid solution andthen be deposited on the substrate 300. A nanotube 400 formed by such amanner could further be aligned with methods utilizing surface tensionor electric fields.

FIG. 5 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 4 followingthe formation of a dielectric 500. The dielectric 500 of an embodimenthas a dielectric constant equal to or greater than the dielectricconstant of silicon dioxide (i.e., a “high-k” dielectric). In anembodiment, the dielectric 500 is silicon dioxide or hafnium oxide. Thedielectric 500 may be deposited by any method known in the art todeposit the dielectric 500 material. In an embodiment, the dielectric500 is approximately between 1 and 10 nanometers thick.

FIG. 6 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 5 followingthe formation of metal nanocrystals 600. The free electrons of the metalscreen electron traps allowing a more stable Fermi energy versus, forexample, silicon nanocrystals 104 utilized by the memory device 100illustrated by FIG. 1. Further, there are many choices of metal speciesfrom which to choose to select a Fermi energy (and corresponding workfunction between the metal and the semiconductor) that in turn can alterthe duration the nanocrystals retain stored charge. Further, the metalcan be selected to be compatible with the chosen dielectric materialcomprising either the tunneling or control dielectric layers (i.e.,dielectric 500 and dielectric 700 respectively) in the memory device.

The metal nanocrystals 600 will collectively function as a floating gateto store charge as described with reference to FIG. 2. The metalnanocrystals 600 of an embodiment are formed by first depositing ablanket layer of metal on the dielectric 500. In an embodiment, theblanket layer of metal is approximately one to few nanometers thick. Theblanket layer of metal can be deposited by any method known to deposithigh quality, very thin metal films. The substrate 300 is thereafterannealed, at which time the metal nanocrystals 600 nucleate. The freeenergy increase due to interfacial energy or surface energy is known asthe capillary effect or the Gibbs-Thompson effect. This is a main forcethat contributes to particle coarsening or “Ostwald Ripening” thatdrives formation of the metal nanocrystals 600 of an embodiment from theblanket layer of metal.

The metal nanocrystal 600 size and distribution depend on, among otherfeatures, the wetting characteristics of the surface on which theblanket layer of metal is deposited (here, the dielectric 500), thethickness of the blanket layer of metal, the temperature of the anneal,the duration of the anneal, and the metal material itself. Annealingparameters vary from no annealing to rapid thermal annealing up to 600°C. for a few seconds duration in inert ambience. In an embodiment, themetal is gold and each metal nanocrystal 600 sphere subsequently formedis approximately 5 nanometers in diameter. Accordingly (and based on thethickness of the preceding blanket layer of metal) the distance betweenthe center of a metal nanocrystal 600 and the center of an adjacentmetal nanocrystal 600 is approximately 15 nanometers, leading to a metalnanocrystal 600 density of approximately 10ˆ12 nanocrystals per squarecentimeter.

FIG. 7 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 6 followingthe formation of a passivation dielectric 700. The passivationdielectric 700 of an embodiment is silicon dioxide, silicon nitride, orany other dielectric material known in the art to passivate. Thepassivation dielectric 700 further fixes the location and size of themetal nanocrystals 600 as they would otherwise continue to conglomerateand increase in size with any high temperature process subsequentlyexperienced. The passivation dielectric 700 further functions as thecontrol dielectric in an embodiment including top gate electrode 1100 asdiscussed below.

FIG. 8 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 7 followingthe formation and patterning of an electrode etch mask 300. The mask 300can be any material (e.g., photoresist, silicon nitride, or siliconcarbide) that substantially withstands the electrode etch through thepassivation dielectric 700 and dielectric 500. The etch of an embodimentis a material-appropriate etch such as TMAH or equivalent alkali-basedetch for exposed photoresist. The regions etched by the electrode etchwill allow subsequent contact to the nanotube 400.

FIG. 9 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 8 followingan electrode etch as patterned by the mask 300. The electrode etch isselective in that it etches the dielectric 700 and the dielectric 500 toopen contacts to the nanotube 400, but substantially does not etch thenanotube 400.

FIG. 10 illustrates the substrate cross section of FIG. 9 following theformation of source electrode 1000 and drain electrode 1001. Further,the mask 300 has been removed by a selective etch so as to not damagethe passivation dielectric 700 underlying the mask 300. In anembodiment, the source electrode 1000 and drain electrode 1001 aretungsten, aluminum, or a silicide. The source electrode 1000 and drainelectrode 1001 may be selected, at least in part, by a targetresistivity, work function, or temperature budget. In a furtherembodiment (not illustrated), the formation of the source electrode 1000and drain electrode 1001 is preceded by the formation of a titanium ortantalum barrier to both prevent the source electrode 1000 and drainelectrode 1001 from contaminating adjacent materials and to improve theadhesion of the source electrode 1000 and drain electrode 1001.

FIG. 11 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 10 followingthe formation of a back gate 1100. In an embodiment, the back gate 1100is tungsten, aluminum, or a silicide. The back gate 1100, in combinationwith the source electrode 1000 and/or drain electrode 1001, generatesthe electric field that causes the electrons to tunnel through thedielectric 500 layer to the metal nanocrystals 600 or to tunnel from themetal nanocrystals 600 through the dielectric 500 layer depending on awrite or erase cycle.

FIG. 12 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 10 followingthe formation of a gate electrode 1200 on top of the dielectric 700 andbetween the source electrode 1000 and the drain electrode 1001. In anembodiment, the gate electrode 1200 is tungsten, aluminum, or asilicide. The gate electrode 1200, in combination with the sourceelectrode 1000 and/or drain electrode 1001, generates the electric fieldthat causes the electrons to tunnel through the dielectric 500 layer tothe metal nanocrystals 600 or to tunnel from the metal nanocrystals 600through the dielectric 500 layer depending on a write or erase cycle.

FIG. 13 illustrates the substrate 300 cross section of FIG. 10 followingthe formation of a back gate 1100 and a gate electrode 1200. The backgate 1100 and the gate electrode 1200, in combination with the sourceelectrode 1000 and/or drain electrode 1001, generate the electric fieldthat causes the electrons to tunnel through the dielectric 500 layer tothe metal nanocrystals 600 or to tunnel from the metal nanocrystals 600through the dielectric 500 layer depending on a write or erase cycle.

In operation, for example for a p-type nanotube, the memory element asillustrated by FIG. 12 may have a logical “1” written by applyingapproximately 5 volts to the gate electrode 1200, approximately 0-0.5volts to the drain electrode 1001 and 0 volts to the source electrode1000. With such a bias, charge carriers will be injected (e.g., bydirect tunneling or Fowler-Nordheim tunneling) to the metal nanocrystals600 comprising a floating gate where they will be subsequently stored.

Conversely, for example for a p-type nanotube, to erase (i.e., generatea logical “0”) a negative potential of approximately between −5 and −7volts is applied to the gate electrode 1200, and approximately 0-0.5volts is applied to the source electrode 1000. The drain electrodeconnection remains open for the erase process. The charge carriers, byFowler-Nordheim electron tunneling through the dielectric 500, drain tothe source electrode 1000.

To read what logical state is stored, for example for a p-type nanotube,approximately 1-2 volts can be applied to the gate electrode 1200,approximately 0.5 volt applied to the drain electrode 1001, andapproximately 0 volts applied to the source electrode 1000. The draincurrent can thereafter be measured by external circuitry (notillustrated). If the drain current is substantially high, then thedevice is storing a logical “1.” If there is substantially no draincurrent, the device is storing a logical “0.” The read cycle does notalter the charge stored on the metal nanocrystals 600 and is thereforenon-destructive.

The increased precision with which the memory element of an embodimentoperates also permits storage of multiple bits. For example, the metalnanocrystals 600 may have more than two charge storage states asmanifested by multiple detectably different drain currents during a readcycle. Further, the sensitivity of the nanotube 400 channel to multiplelevels of stored charge in the metal nanocrystals 600 furthercontributes to the large memory window (i.e., resistive ratio or draincurrent ratio in the nanotube 400 channel for a logical “1” versus alogical “0”). Accordingly, for a one bit device, little perturbation isrequired in the charge stored in the metal nanocrystals 600 to generatea detectible difference in the drain current. This in turn leads tolower power requirements of the device or simplification of externalsensor design as it need not be as sensitive.

While an embodiment has been illustrated with a nanotube 400 channelregion, it is to be understood that the nanotube may be replaced by ananowire or nanowires or a combination of nanotubes and nanowires.Nanowires, like nanotubes, exhibit interesting electrical properties andoffer the potential for paradigm-shifting trends in device design. Inparticular, nanowires are semiconductors (e.g., Group IV semiconductorslike silicon, germanium, and silicon germanium alloys, and III-Vsemiconductors like gallium arsenide) that can be relatively easilydoped compared to carbon nanotubes to adjust their electricalproperties. Like nanotubes, the nanowires can be grown in place, moreparticularly via a vapor-liquid-solid growth mechanism.

Further, while an embodiment has been described with reference to metalnanocrystals 600, it is to be understood that fullerene nanoparticlesmay also be utilized to form the discrete charge storage regions of afloating gate. In particular, fullerene nanoparticles such as C36, C60(i.e., the “Buckyball”), C70, C76, C84, or any other fullerenenanoparticle may store charge as described with reference to metalnanocrystals 600.

One skilled in the art will recognize the elegance of an embodiment inthat it combines the benefits of a nanotube channel and a metalnanocrystal floating gate to form an improved non-volatile memoryelement. One skilled in the art will further recognize that in thehighly competitive non-volatile memory market, even small increases inperformance can lead to significant market advantages.

1. An apparatus comprising: a floating gate transistor including ananotube channel, the floating gate including a plurality of metalnanocrystals adjacent to the nanotube channel.
 2. The apparatus of claim1 wherein the nanotube channel is a carbon nanotube.
 3. The apparatus ofclaim 1 wherein the carbon nanotube is a single walled carbon nanotube4. The apparatus of claim 1, the metal nanocrystals comprising amaterial selected from the group consisting of gold, silver, platinum,nickel, cobalt, gold silicide, silver silicide, platinum silicide,nickel silicide, and cobalt silicide.
 5. A transistor comprising: ananotube channel formed on an oxide; a first dielectric formed on thenanotube channel; and a plurality of metal nanocrystals formed on thefirst dielectric adjacent to the nanotube channel.
 6. The transistor ofclaim 5 further comprising: a second dielectric formed on the firstdielectric and on the metal nanocrystals.
 7. The transistor of claim 6further comprising: a first electrode coupled to a first end of thenanotube channel; and a second electrode coupled to a second end of thenanotube channel.
 8. The transistor of claim 7 further comprising: agate electrode formed on the second dielectric substantially between thefirst electrode an the second electrode.
 9. A method comprising: forminga nanotube channel on an oxide; forming a first dielectric on thenanotube channel; and forming a plurality of metal nanocrystals on thefirst dielectric adjacent to the nanotube channel.
 10. The method claim9 further comprising: forming a second dielectric on the firstdielectric and on the metal nanocrystals.
 11. The method of claim 10further comprising: forming a first electrode coupled to a first end ofthe nanotube channel; and forming a second electrode coupled to a secondend of the nanotube channel.
 12. The method of claim 11 furthercomprising: forming a gate electrode on the second dielectricsubstantially between the first electrode an the second electrode.
 13. Amethod comprising: storing a charge on a floating gate of nanotubetransistor, the nanotube transistor including a nanotube channel and thefloating gate including a plurality of metal nanocrystals; and detectingthe charge by measuring a drain current of the nanotube transistor. 14.The method of claim 13, storing the charge on the floating gate furthercomprising: applying an electric potential to a control gate of thenanotube transistor; and injecting charge carriers to the floating gate.15. The method of claim 13 further comprising: discharging the floatinggate.
 16. The method of claim 15, discharging the floating gate furthercomprising: applying a negative electric potential to a control gate;and draining the charge carriers to a source.